History of the FIFA World Cup

History of the FIFA World Cup The FIFA World Cup, which is known as football world cup or mainly just world cup, is a worldwide football competition. Only the mens national teams take place in this world cup which is held every four years since it started at the year 1930 except in 1942 and 1946 because of the World War II. 32 teams participate in the current format of the world cup tournament in a certain nation which is chosen by votes. The tournament lasts for about a months and this stage is called the world cup finals. Teams begin to compete to book a place in the tournament for like three years before it starts. This stage is called qualification stage. The World Cup is the most widely-viewed sporting event in the world, with an estimated 715.1 million people watching the 2006 final. Only seven nations won the World Cup title of the last 18 tournaments. Brazil who won the title five times are the only team to have participated in all the tournaments held so far. Italy won the World Cup title four times and are the current holder of the title. Germany won this title three times, Argentina twice and one title for each of Uruguay France and England. The last World Cup tournament was held in Germany in 2006. The next World Cup will be held in South Africa, between 11 June and 11 July 2010, and the 2014 World Cup will be held in Brazil. 1990 FIFA World Cup Italy West Germany won FIFA World Cup title for the third time in 1990 as they defeated Argentina in the final 1-0 in Rome. This win made them revenge their defeat by Argentina in the final 4 years later. This victory was really important for Franz Beckenbauer as he won this title as a player and later on he won it as a coach. He was the second person to do this. The 1990 tournament finals set a first of its type record with only 2.21 goals per match, but definitely there was so much color and drama. The first match of the tournament witnessed a huge unexpected surprise which was a dramatic one, with Cameroon beating Argentina at a magnificently revamped San Siro. Roger Milla the Cameroonian player enjoyed his finest moments. This made people believe that Cameroon might actually do something memorable in this tournament. This was the second time for Italy to host the FIFA World Cup. 56 years after their 1934 triumph on its lands, they hosted a successful tournament on its own soil. 10 stadiums around the peninsula were repaired to host the finals while two vast new arenas were built in Turin and Bari. 1994 FIFA World Cup USA The USA hosted the FIFA World Cup 1994 which was one of the very successful tournaments ever which ended with Brazil celebrating their first title after 24 years since they last won it in the year 1970. The final was disappointing for many fans as it was a draw with no goals and it was settled with penalties as Brazil defeated Italy, but that didnt affect the previous entertainment in the previous matches. 141 goals were scored in this tournament which was the highest number since 1982. The first surprise was Bulgaria surprising the whole world by beating Germany on the way to the semi-finals. Diego Maradona tested positive for drugs and was expelled from the tournament, his team, Argentina, following suit soon after by losing a five-goal thriller to Gheorghe Hagis Romania. There was some drama also in this tournament. Colombia defender Andres Escobar scored an own goal against the US that eliminated Colombia from the tournament was then murdered for what he did. That match guaranteed for the Americans a place in the second round where they lost to Brazil 1-0. 1998 FIFA World Cup France France where Jules Rimet who is the father of FIFA World Cup was born finally won the title for itself on its own lands in the summer of 1998. It was a memorable summer for the champions of the world as they won the title after suffering semi-final defeats ten years ago. Not only that, but this tournament was the biggest ever. The 16th FIFA World Cup expanded the number of teams from 24 to 32. Expansion of the number of teams meant that more teams from Africa, Asia and Northern America will take places in the tournaments. South Africa, Jamaica and Japan qualified for the first time ever this year. The 32 teams were divided into 8 groups each containing 4 teams and the 8 groups were spread all over but the starting match and the final were played in le Stade de France. In this stadium Brazil the holders of the 1994 World Cup played the opening match against Scotland where they won 2-1. France won the title in a dramatic final against Brazil where they won with three goals where two of them were scored by the legendary Zein El-Din Zidane and the match ended 3-0 for France. 2002 FIFA World Cup Korea/Japan The 2002 FIFA World Cup which was hosted by a new continent was played in Korea/Japan. This tournament was full of surprise from the beginning till the end where strong teams unexpectedly lost to weaker teams. But the final match was of no surprises as it included two of the strongest teams, Brazil and Germany. Brazil conceded their 5th title and won 2-0 against Germany. Ronaldo who didnt participate in the final of 1998 against France was the hero for Brazilians as he scored the two goals that earned Brazil their title in Yokohama against Germany. He scored eight goals in this tournament which was the highest number of scored goals in one tournament after Gerd Mullers ten goals in Mexico 1970. After thirty days of drama where Strong teams lost to weaker ones and un-predicted victories and losses, the final was somehow familiar as the Yellow-shirted South Americans lifted the World Cup high in the sky for the fifth time. It was the first time for Asia to host a World Cup final and by Brazil achieving their fifth title they set a record of capturing a title from every continent that hosted the finals. 2006 FIFA World Cup Germany Italy won the FIFA World Cup title in 2006 after their amazing teamwork. With the final witnessing some drama as the magnificent Zidane was shown a red card after hitting Marco Materazzi with his head, Italy was rewarded the title after a 1-1 draw in the full time and extra time, then beating France in the penalty shoot-outs. The thirty days of amazing football in Germany was not only witnessed by 3,359,439 spectators who attended the matches in 12 amazing stadiums but also approximately 30 billion viewers from all over the world. They all witnessed an amazing 64-match, 147-goal marathon. Zidanes return to his amazing form with France helped his team to beat Spain and Brazil on the way to Berlin where the final was hosted. At the age of 33 he earned the Adidas Golden ball as the best player in this tournament and scored in the final against Italy after 8 years of scoring twice in the final against Brazil. But there was no happy ending for him as he was dismissed in the final for the famous fight with Materazzi. Germany 2006 had the lowest goals average since 1990. The FIFA World Cup is the most important sports tournament after the Olympics. It is viewed by all sexes and all ages where children, men and women watch it with pleasure. Some feel happy and amazed at the end as some feel depressed but its of no second thinking that all the viewers all over the world enjoy it and are amazed by the magnificent football played in the World Cup by the best players of the world. Either it is teamwork or self-skills, it is wonderful. It is the kind of sport and tournaments that gathers all the people under one aim which is enjoying football.

Influences on Elderly Quality of Life: Age and Identity

Influences on Elderly Quality of Life: Age and Identity Many influences affect older peoples quality of life in the 21st century and there are changes in expectations both by and about older people in terms of identity and pressure to age well. The following will discuss and evaluate the many influences, which affect older people’s quality of life in the 21st century. The evaluation will also discuss the changes in expectations both by and about older people in terms of their identity and the pressure to age well. As will be demonstrated there are many diverse influences that affect older people’s quality of life ranging from government policies, non-governmental organisations representing their interests, prevailing demographic trends, as well as the provisions for retirement which the older people may or may not have made for themselves. The quality of life for older people is also influenced and to a large extent dependent upon the availability of health, housing, and social services. Non-governmental organisations have an important role in altering the expectations of older people in terms of their identity, and the pressure to age well. The value of occupational and state pensions as well as the potential ly high costs of having to be cared for are as will be shown a significant concern for older people when it comes to their quality of life. Government policies can and do have a major influence upon the quality of life of older people. The government could also alter the expectations that older people have in terms of their identities and any pressure to age well, which can be an integral part of government and public sector policies towards older people. This was a small document issued by the Better Government for Older People group to discuss the challenges that older people face. It is a good overview of the issues involved (Audit Commission / Better Government for Older People, p.2). Governments have to consider the cost of state pensions, other social security benefits, as well as the cost of health and social services (House of Commons Committee of Public Accounts, May 2004 p. 9). Demographic trends will also have a significant factor in the provision of government social security payments and public services to older people. The increasing numbers of older people within the population mean that people need to pay higher national insurance contributions and taxes whilst they are working to cover extra public expenditure caused by the higher costs that an ageing population brings with it (Vincent et al, 2006). As another way of reducing the strain on social security and public service budgets the government has also changed employment law to allow older people to carry on working past the state retirement age. Already the government has changed services and the help directed towards older people to improve their health and to reduce levels of poverty, i.e. the introduction of NHS Direct and Pension Credit. The whole of the House of Commons report contains very useful information concerning the policy decisions needed to help older people in Britain. The report provides analysis of the successes and the shortcomings of present public policies towards older people. On balance chapters 3 and 4 contained the most relevant information (House of Commons Committee of Public Accounts, May 2004 p. 9). Ultimately the government would more than likely increase the state retirement age so that older people in the future have longer working lives to pay towards their state retirement pensions (Brooke and Taylor, 2005). Allowing older people to work longer also compensates for the declining number of young people in the population that are paying taxes and national insurance contributions to provide social security payments and public services. When it comes to social security and public service expenditure governments have attempted to save costs by rationing or restricting services, as well as making older people with greater levels of savings or their own homes pay for such services. For instance, older people who own their houses are liable to sell those homes to pay for long-term stays in residential care homes. That practice has now been reduced nationally due to devolution in Scotland and Wales. The Department of Health report is a useful analysis of the current provision of med ical services to older people, as well as outlining the options for improving the level of healthcare provision in the future. There is also some useful information in the appendices (Department of Health, 2006). New Labour has attempted to reorganise government structures to target services towards older people more effectively. For instance the Department for Works and Pensions has made itself more responsive to the needs of older people via the creation of the Pension Service in 2002 (House of Commons Committee of Public Accounts, May 2004 p. 10). For the government and the non-governmental organisations which are interested in improving or at least maintaining the quality of life for older people there are social as well as economic reasons for allowing and encouraging older people to carry on working past the state retirement age. Non-governmental organisations like Age Concern and Help the Aged regard the encouraging of older people to stay employed as an important means of maintaining a higher quality of life and helping older people to age well. Older people had varying degrees of access to public services and opportunities to voice their concerns or problems. Generally older people in socially and economically deprived areas have greater needs and less influence over public services. Riseborough and Jenkins provide useful explanations as to why older people find it harder to benefit from the regeneration of deprived areas than younger people do so. Sections 3 and 4 were probably the most informative parts of this report (Riseborough Jenkins, April 2004 p. 6). As far as non-governmental organisations are convinced that working for longer enables older people to maintain or even improve their levels of self-esteem. Older people are more prone to been excluded from improvements to public services and employment opportunities in areas that have been regenerated. Another area of concern for non-governmental organisations is that the government’s consultations with older people are inconsistent nationally although it is improving on the whole (Riseborough Jenkins, April 2004 p.13). Working in either a paid or voluntary capacity is a valuable method of keeping older people mentally and physically active and therefore assists them to age well. For older people themselves staying employed could also have a significant influence upon their quality of life, as it facilitates their opportunities to socialise with other older people as well as younger people. Evandrou and Glaser contend that older people could increasingly face the choice of carrying on working due to the insufficient pension levels or caring for partners or other elderly relatives (Evandrou Glaser, 2003). Contact with younger people allows those younger people the chance to meet and understand older people, and therefore increase respect for older generations. Both the government and the non-governmental organisations, that represent the interests of older people, have found evidence that older people find it difficult to remain employed or return to the active work force due to prejudices based on ageism against them. Aside from prejudice there might be other barriers to older people being involved in the labour market, such as a lack of training facilities or restricted access for older people with issues around their physical capabilities. To a large extent, physical barriers to older people should be significantly reduced by the requirements of the Disability Discrimination Act. That Act requires equal access to work places and the provision of public or private services irrespective of disability and of age (Audit Commission / Better Government for Older People, p.2). The concept of establishing identities and ageing well depends on more than just the prospects of older people wishing to work for longer. Estes et al are in parts highly critical of present public services for older people, whilst the first couple of chapters provide valuable insights into the way older people are generally inadequately catered for (Estes et al, 2003). The desire of older people to work and remain active for longer is influenced by what they want out life themselves as well as by the influence of the government and non-governmental organisations. Older people have an influence upon the ideas and the policies of the government and non-governmental organisations towards them. Older people are often an essential part of the non-governmental organisations that they belong to, and who represent their interests. Non-governmental organisations will attempt to help older people to establish their identity and advise them how to age well due to older people requesting such a ssistance in the first place. Older people will use non-governmental organisations to lobby the government to change governmental policies to suit their best interests when it comes to a high quality of life, an identity that enables self-esteem and enhances the prospects of ageing well. It is not governments that older people and their associated non-governmental organisations attempt to lobby, they frequently use the media to publicise their opinions or advice. Of course the influence that older people have upon government policy should logically increase throughout the 21st century as the population continues to age and the government will need older people to work longer and stay healthy for longer. As older people will make up an ever-greater percentage of the electorate the political parties that do the most to improve the quality of life older people could have the best prospects of winning general elections. In return governments will have to assist older people by making it easier to remain employed and healthy for longer as well as reducing the incidence of ageism. Reducing the doubts that people have concerning the abilities of older people is vital if prejudices are not going to prevent the expectations of older people that the quality of their lives will be improved. The majority of the report by Bowers et al is critical of the failure of public policy to assist older people with mental health problems. The report frequently mentions the positive influence that non-governmental organisations do have upon the quality of life for older people and raising their expectations (Bowers et al, 2005 p. 25). To conclude the quality of life of older people, with closely linked expectations of identity and ageing well will be and is currently influenced by government policy, the actions of the non-governmental organisations that are interested in older people, and the media. Governments will argue that the best way for older people to achieve a high quality of life is for them to help themselves by working as long as possible. Governments are encouraging people to plan for their own retirement in terms of adequate income levels, and advising them of the all public services, which are available to help them. Urging people to stay employed not only prevents older people from living in poverty it raises expectations of being identified as being useful and active members of society that have self-esteem and who are respected by younger people. Governments have an important influence by demonstrating to society as a whole the valuable contribution that older people make to the social and econom ic quality of life for every body and not just for older people. Non-governmental organisations that help older people also have a strong influence over the quality of life, plus the expectations of identity and ageing well for older people. In a sense non-governmental organisations are essential for older people to gain the help and the advice they need to have a high quality of life whilst advising governments of the social and economic policies which will improve the lives of older people. Bibliography Audit Commission / Better Government for Older People – Older People, independence and well-being: The challenge for public services, Public Sector Briefing Bowers H, Eastman M, Harris J, Macadam A (2005) Moving out of the Shadows – A report on mental health and wellbeing in later life, Health Care Development Ltd, London Brooke L and Taylor P, Older workers and employment: managing age relations, Ageing society 25, 2005, 415-429, Cambridge University Press Department of Health, A Sure Start to later life, Ending inequalities for older people, January 2006 Estes, C.L. Biggs, S. and Phillipson, C. (2003), Social Theory, Social Policy and Ageing A critical introduction, Open University Press, Maidenhead Maria Evandrou and Karen Glaser, Combining work and family life: the pension penalty of care, Ageing and Society 23, 2003, 583-601, Cambridge University Press House of Commons Committee of Public Accounts, Improving Public Service for Older People, Twenty- Ninth Report of Session 2003-04 (May 2004) Riseborough M Jenkins C (April 2004), Now you see me†¦now you don’t How are older citizens being included in regeneration? Age Concern, London Vincent, J., Phillipson, C. Downs M., (eds) (2006) The Futures of Old Age, Sage

Is fate a factor :: essays research papers

Fate is the power that is supposed to settle ahead of time how things will happen. Romeo and Juliet lives were ruled by fate. Even though they thought they should be together fate had different plans for both of them. Fate did not rule in their favour. A large part of the beliefs for both Romeo and Juliet involved fate. They believed in the stars, and that their actions weren't always their own. Romeo, for example, Act1 scene4 line107-113 says, "Some consequence yet hanging in the stars...by some vile forfeit of untimely death. But he that hath the steerage over my course Direct my sail." He's basically saying to his friends that he had a dream, which leads him to believe that he will die young because of something in the stars, something that will happen. He ends with "he that hath steerage over my course" which implies that he does not have control over his life if he looks to another power above himself to direct him. He does not feel that he is the one who makes decisions; it is all a higher power with purpose. Romeo says he is in love with Rosaline, who did not return these feelings. A servant of the Capulet's was sent to invite people on a list to a party that the Capulet's were throwing. While Romeo babbled on about his life with Benvolio and kinsmen. Romeo bumped into this servant who asked him to read the list. Rosaline's name appeared which got Romeo to agree to go the party. This sets everything up for the Romeo and Juliet. They met at the party and fell deeply in love with each other. They realize later their identities, but they are in love and won't let their names get in the way of that strong emotional bind. Fate had an immense impact in this scene. Another example of fate was after Romeo killed Tybalt because of Tybalt killing Mercutio in a sword fight. After Romeo kills Tybalt he shouts, Act3 scene1 line136 â€Å"O, I am fortune’s fool!" Here Romeo understands the full impact of this tragic event on his future and how everything started to deteriorate after he met Juliet.

Huck Finn :: essays research papers

You Can’t Pray A Lie is a pivotal excerpt taken from Mark Twain’s classic The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Like Twain’s other works, this example of moral truth and consequence undermines the basic sense of human values. Set in the 1880’s on a raft upon the Mississippi River, Huck is caught in a battle of personal conflicting views. It is through his interactions with Jim, a runaway black slave, that he faces the realization that being ultimately true to himself means that he cannot â€Å"pray a lie.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Jim had run away from his abusive father and enabling small town to find himself traveling down the Mississippi on a raft. His traveling partner was a black slave, Jim. Wondering why Jim was there, Huck discovers that Jim had run away from his slave owner, Ms. Watson. Jim had spoken about his harsh life as a slave, and resented talk of being sold down to Orleans for a â€Å"big stack o’ money.† Huck felt that Jim’s escape was wrong, but kept his promise of secrecy, like any good friend would.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In lieu of his escape, Jim emphasized his feelings of becoming a free man. Jim said it made him all over trembly and feverish to be so close to freedom (p. 238). Huck came to the realization that Jim was escaping for a far different reason than he, and began to see this â€Å"nigger’s† freedom as his own fault; he was an accomplice. Huck’s conscience became plagued by the fact that Jim was escaping the custody of his rightful owner, and he was doing nothing to stop this. In Huck’s eyes, Jim was essentially the property of poor old Ms. Watson, who didn’t do anything less than teach Jim his manners and his books. Altogether, Huck felt that he was doing wrong by concealing this, and felt miserable to say the least.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Jim’s anticipation for freedom grew higher as he expressed his future dreams and aspirations. Jim began saying things that â€Å"niggers† wouldn’t normally dare say. Jim was speaking like a white man, not like someone’s property, a slave. This attitude began to lower Huck’s vision of Jim, and his conscience grew even hotter. Huck had never been exposed to a slave who spoke this way. It was his inadequate education that told him this was wrong.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Jim stopped the raft with intentions of surrendering Jim. At this point he heard Jim yell: â€Å"Pooty soon I’ll be a-shout’n for joy, en I’ll say, it’s on accounts o’Huck; I’s a free man, en I couldn’t ever ben free ef it hadn’ been for Huck; Huck done it.

Free Essays - Human Nature in Hamlet :: Shakespeare Hamlet Essays

Human Nature in Hamlet       The play, Hamlet, by William Shakespeare, shows human nature to be greedy, self-involved and vengeful. Claudius is driven by his greed to commit murder. Polonius is always looking out for himself, currying favor at the expense of anyone in his way. Hamlet thinks only of vengeance from the moment he finds out about Claudius murdering his father. Human nature has been all of these things, but it has also evolved through the ages. We can be base and cruel, but we can also show great compassion and kindness.    Claudius kills his own brother so that he can claim the crown and the queen. He disposes of a good and noble king to satisfy his greed. He sacrifices his brother, the good of the country, and the happiness of many to fulfill his ambition. He cares only for himself. Knowingly or not, most humans, at one point or another, will be driven by greed. Most, however, will not have the determination and desperation that Claudius displays. This is partly because of the differences of the times. In the time period that Shakespeare wrote the play, murder was heavily frowned upon as it is now. Greed is part of all people. They see something they want and they tell themselves that it is only what they deserve. It is inescapable, but we can control it to a certain degree.    Polonius characterizes the aspect of human nature that is self-concern. He is constantly looking for ways to ingratiate himself to the king. He sacrifices his own daughter's happiness so that he can prove his theories about Hamlet's madness to the king. Self-concern is another inherent trait that humans cannot escape. People are constantly thinking about themselves and how things are going to affect their lives. They care deeply for their own well being. Certainly they think about others occasionally, but their own person is always number one in their minds.    Vengefulness is yet another inexorable human trait. Hamlet's entire character is changed by his need for revenge. He starts out as a serene, learned young man but the need for vengeance twists his soul to the point where he is driven only by his need for pay back.

Project Management Essay

Table of Contents Activity on the node network diagram3 Determination of the timing of activities and the total float4 The project duration and the critical path†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦5 The earliest date the project can be completed given the starting date – Monday 7th May 2012†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..5 The effect on the duration of the whole project if:†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢ € ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..5 Activity F is delayed by one day5 Activity N is delayed by one day6 Activity O is completed one day early †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..6 The limitations of Network diagrams†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..6 7| 5| 12| | D| | 7| 0| 12| 1. Activity on the node network diagram 5| 2| 7| | C| | 5| 0| 7| 0| 4| 4| | A| | 0| 0| 4| 4| 1| 5| | B| | 4| 0| 5| 12| 1| 13| | E| | 21| 9| 22| 12| 6| 18| | F| | 16| 4| 22| 12| 8| 20| | G| | 14| 2| 22| 12| 10| 22| | H| | 12| 0| 22| 22| 10| 32| | I| | 22| 0| 32| 32| 4| 36| | J| | 32| 0| 36| 36| 1| 37| | K| | 45| 9| 46| 36| 6| 42| | L| | 40| 4| 46| 36| 10| 46| | M| | 36| 0| 46| 36| 2| 38| | N| | 44| 8| 46| 46| 4| 50| | O| | 46| 0| 50| 50| 1| 51| | P| | 50| 0| 51| 51| 1| 52| | Q| | 51| 0| 52| Legend: Earliest start time (EST)| Duration| Earliest finish time (EFT)| | Task | | Latest start time (LST)| Total Float| Latest finish time (LFT)| Critical Path The project duration: 52 days A, B, C, D, H, I,J,M,O,P,Q 2. Determination of the timing of activities and the total float The earliest start time (EST), the earliest time at which the node could be reached, and the earliest finish time (EFT), the latest time by which the node must be reached if the project is to finsh by its required completion date, are produced by a forward pass through the network. The first step of the forward pass is calculating the earliest start time, commencing from the unique project start node and finishing at the unique project completion node. The first task of the project is A, hence the earliest start time of task A may be set to zero since no information has been given as to the starting day of the task. The next step is determining the EFT, which is calculated by adding the EST to the duration of the task. Given the duration of every task, the proces of calculating the EFT of every task is quite straight forward assuming that the EST of every task is the EFT of the previous task. However, when it comes to a merge activity the largest value must be taken. The latest event times, refering to the latest start time (LST) and the latest finish time (LFT), are the times when a particular task may commence without delaying the project duration and when the particular task may be completed without delaying the project duration. Usually such times are required when the project has an established target finish date. The latest event times are calculated using the backward pass technique. Such technique begins by determining the latest finish time of the last task of the project completion and works backwards to the start node. Since no inforamtion has been given regarding the target finish date of the project, the LFT of the project is equal to the EFT in which the project can be done. Hence, the LST can be calculated by subtracting theduration from the LFT. Working backwards, the LST of the previous task is to be the EFT of the task with the determined EST. It is important that when it comes to a merge activity the smallest value must be take n. Once the LFT of every task is completed the total float can be calculated by the following formula: Total float = latest time of finish event – earliest time of start event – duration 3. The project duration and the critical path The project duration was determined by adding the EST of every task to the durtation of every task carried forward from one task to another. Hence, the longest path determines the duration of the project and therefore establishes the critical path since the longest necessary path through a network of activities when respecting their interdependencies is considered to be critical. Furthermore, the critical path may also be determined as the path with the least float. In fact, the critical path determined above has the least float (0) and the longest duration of the project (52 days). 4. The earliest date the project can be completed given the starting date – Monday 7th May 2012 The earliest finishing time of the project as established in the diagram is that of fifty two days. Given that the project can be completed using a five day working week, therefore it will take ten weeks and two days to complete  the project. Calculating the weeks and days from the 7th of May 2012, the earliest date in which the project can be completed is on Tuesday 17th July 2012. 5. The effect on the duration of the whole project if: a. Activity F is delyaed by one day. The delay in activity F will not affect the duration of the whole project as such because the increase in duration will not exceed the total float of activity F, therefore does not exceed the duration of activity H which forms part of the critical path. Activity F can only affect the duration of the project if it delays by five days as it will surpass the amount of days that the activity is allowed to float. b. Activity N is delayed by one day The total float of activity N is that of eight days. Therefore, the amount of days that activity N will be delayed does not affect the duration of the project. In this case, in order for the duration of the projet to be effected the delay time of activity N has to be of nine days as it will surpass the duration of activity M which is part of the critical path. c. Activity O is completed one day early Given that the activity forms part of the critcal path, therefore the duration of the project will be affected not only by being completed early but also if the activity had to delay since the total float is that of zero. In this case, since the activity will be carried out one day sooner than expected, the project will be completed one day early and the duration of the project will be that of fifty one days instead of fifty two days. 6. The limitations of Network diagrams In project managent network diagrams have several advantages when it comes to scheduling projects. One major advantage is that it helps project managers identify the most important activities which may affact the project schedule. However, such diagrams have also limitations to their use in scheduling a project. For large projects a network diagram may not be the ideal scheduling technique because of several activities and dependency  relationships that can make the diagram complex to carry out and difficult for other employees to understand. Furthermore, if the plan of the project changes during the completion of the project, the precendence network will have to be done all over again. In addition, such diagram therefore, may be considered as a time consuming technique. The techniuqe may also take too much to identify all activities and inter-relate them to multiple project paths. Network diagrams may also not be suitable for first time projects because if project cannot be broken down into distinctive activities with known duratrion for every activity then the precendence diagram cannot be drawn. The most critical factor is the duration because on a new project the duration for certain activities may be difficult to estimate, hence the network diagram may be far from actual. Another limitation of network diagrams is when a shift of resource occurs. When the network diagram encounters re-allocation of resources such as employees being transfered from one acvtiviy to another, the activity completion time may be changed because of stoppage or other relevant reasons and the plan of the project may be disrupted. A network diagram may consist of parallel paths with the same durations. This is considered to be a problem within such diagram because project teams may find it diffuclt to chooose the most critical activities, hence create uncertainty on which path will be the critical path within the project. This may also cause the project teams to disagree as one team may choose one path to be critical and the another team may choose the other path to be the critical path.

Cja 224 Week 1

CJA/224 Monday April 15, 2013 The American Criminal Court Systems The American criminal court systems are made up of Federal and State courts. The State court deals mainly with civil, traffic, and family issues. The Federal court handles more serious violations which include federal and government violations and issues between actual states. If the case is either federal or state trial courts determine guilt and convictions. Our court systems are very complex, but recently Community courts have been added and that is used for less offense, and mostly used for mediation.The Federal court consists are military courts, international courts and trading, and also includes ninety four district courts. The district courts are used for trials and convictions. The Federal court systems also deal with all tax situations. The Federal courts have twelve circuits in the appellate courts. The appellate courts are used for appealing cases that were once heard in trial. If you want to appeal your co nviction, the appellate court is where you should have your case heard. The Supreme Court is the highest possible court.It has nine justices with one chief justice. The Supreme Court only hears about two hundred cases a year, so it is very rare for the justices to accept to hear your case if you chose to try and appeal within the Supreme Court. The dual court system explains that both the Federal and State courts work separately under one judicial government. As I had stated above, the Federal court deals with national law and the State courts deal with state and civil. They both rarely work together, both courts work under one government but work almost completely separate from one another.The constitution of the United States is based off Federal laws which do apply to the country as a whole, which includes all the states. Federal laws are universal all over the country, as the state laws vary from state to state. Each state has the opportunity to create its own laws for that stat e, which is why you notice laws are different in one state to another. Our nation follows either common or civil law. Common law was first established in England in the Middle Ages, as civil law first was established in continental Europe around the same time and was also applied o Spain and Portugal. Common law isn’t based on statues as civil law is which can be confusing for most. Civil law is codified, which has shaped our court systems. This allows appropriate punishment for each offense brought to the court room. The Judge has a role to bring all the evidence out in a civil law system and the applicable code is applied to each case. This has shaped our court systems because the American court systems is strongly common law based which was brought from England in the Middle Ages.Civil law is practiced in America, just in a small amount, mostly in state courts. Louisiana is a great example of the civil law system. Louisiana has a strong French and Spanish influence, and th e civil system did once start in England and Spain. The Criminal justice system serves three main purposes in the United States. The three main purposes are to investigate, to prosecute, and to punish crimes. The most basic role in the criminal justice system is to investigate crimes and allegations.If the law enforcement feels as if the investigation is complete and needs further investigation the cases are sent to the correct attorneys. Prosecuting offenders is another purpose in the criminal justice system. If the alleged crime violated is deserving of prosecution then the cases is taken to court (state court) and is handled by the prosecuting attorney. The criminal justice systems doesn’t only investigate and prosecute, it also punishes offenders for their crimes. There are many different types of punishment which include fines, probation and jail time.Not only does the criminal justices system punish but it also has programs for prisoners to take once they are released f rom jail or taken off probation to help them from repeating the crime they were already punished for in the beginning. This is what the criminal justice systems call rehabilitation programs. References: 1. Walker, Samuel (1992). â€Å"Origins of the Contemporary Criminal Justice Paradigm: The American Bar Foundation Survey, 1953-1969†. Justice Quarterly  9  (1). 2. Neocleous, Mark (2004). Fabricating Social Order: A Critical History of Police Power. London: Pluto Press. pp. 93–94. ISBN